Eastern Han Dynasty

The eastern han dynasty, also known as the later five dynasties, formally began on 5 August 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han. During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the Korean state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until 30 CE. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in 40 CE. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (d. 49 CE) in a campaign from 42–43 CE. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (比), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (蒲奴), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 50 CE. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.

During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in 63 CE and used as a base to invade Han's Hexi Corridor in Gansu . Dou Gu (d. 88 CE) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in 73 CE, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami.

After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (d. 75 CE) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in 89 CE, Dou Xian (d. 92 CE) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains. After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in 91 CE, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (檀石槐) (d. 180 CE), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.

Ban Chao (d. 102 CE) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire, occupying the area of modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When a request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises (r. c. 90–c. 100 CE) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in 90 CE, he sent his forces to Wakhan (Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In 91 CE, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.

In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han Empire received gifts from the Parthian Empire, from a king in modern Burma, from a ruler in Japan, and initiated an unsuccessful mission to Daqin (Rome) in 97 CE with Gan Ying as emissary. A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 CE) is recorded in the Hou Hanshu to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 CE) in 166 CE,yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants. Other travelers to Eastern-Han China included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao of Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara, India.

Eunuchs in state affairs

Emperor Zhang's (r. 75–88 CE) reign came to be viewed by later eastern han dynasty scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans. With the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong (d. 107 CE), Emperor He (r. 88–105 CE) had Empress Dowager Dou (d. 97 CE) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—Consort Liang—and then concealing her identity from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (d. 121 CE) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 CE.

When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r. 106–125 CE) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (d. 126 CE) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family.

However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng (d. 132 CE) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han (r. 125–144 CE). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent Liang Ji (d. 159 CE), brother of Empress Liang Na (d. 150 CE), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü (later empress) (d. 165 CE) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.

Students from the Imperial University organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 CE, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (d. 168 CE) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.

Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (陳蕃) (d. 168 CE) attempted a coup d'état against the eunuchs Hou Lan (d. 172 CE), Cao Jie (d. 181 CE), and Wang Fu (王甫). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou (d. 172 CE) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan (張奐) favored the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.

Under Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 CE) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while themselves auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong (d. 189 CE) and Zhang Rang (d. 189 CE) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades. 963

List of emperors of the eastern han dynasty

Posthumous name		Personal name		Period of reign	Era name		Range of years
Continuation of han dynasty
Emperor Gengshi of Han	更始帝	Liu Xuan	劉玄	23–25 AD	Gēngshǐ	更始	23–25 AD
Emperor Guangwu of Han	光武帝	Liu Xiu	劉秀	25–57 AD	Jiànwǔ	建武	25–56 AD
					Jiànwǔzhōngyuán	建武中元	56–57 AD
Emperor Ming of Han	明帝	Liu Zhuang	劉陽	57–75 AD	Yǒngpíng	永平	57–75 AD
Emperor Zhang of Han	章帝	Liu Da	劉炟	75–88 AD	Jiànchū	建初	76–84 AD
					Yuánhé	元和	84–87 AD
					Zhānghé	章和	87–88 AD
Emperor He of Han	和帝	Liu Zhao	劉肇	88–106 AD	Yǒngyuán	永元	89–105 AD
					Yuánxīng	元興	105 AD
Emperor Shang of Han	殤帝	Liu Long	劉隆	106 AD	Yánpíng	延平	9 months in 106 AD
Emperor An of Han	安帝	Liu Hu	劉祜	106–125 AD	Yǒngchū	永初	107–113 AD
					Yuánchū	元初	114–120 AD
					Yǒngníng	永寧	120–121 AD
					Jiànguāng	建光	121–122 AD
					Yánguāng	延光	122–125 AD
Marquess of Beixiang	少帝 or 北鄉侯	Liu Yi	劉懿	125 AD	Yánguāng	延光	125 AD
Emperor Shun of Han	順帝	Liu Bao	劉保	125–144 AD	Yǒngjiàn	永建	126–132 AD
					Yángjiā	陽嘉	132–135 AD
					Yǒnghé	永和	136–141 AD
					Hàn'ān	漢安	142–144 AD
					Jiànkāng	建康	144 AD
Emperor Chong of Han	沖帝	Liu Bing	劉炳	144–145 AD	Yōngxī	永嘉	145 AD
Emperor Zhi of Han	質帝	Liu Zuan	劉纘	145–146 AD	Běnchū	本初	146 AD
Emperor Huan of Han	桓帝	Liu Zhi	劉志	146–168 AD	Jiànhé	建和	147–149 AD
					Hépíng	和平	150 AD
					Yuánjiā	元嘉	151–153 AD
					Yǒngxīng	永興	153–154 AD
					Yǒngshòu	永壽	155–158 AD
					Yánxī	延熹	158–167 AD
					Yǒngkāng	永康	167 AD
Emperor Ling of Han	靈帝	Liu Hong	劉宏	168–189 AD	Jiànníng	建寧	168–172 AD
					Xīpíng	熹平	172–178 AD
					Guānghé	光和	178–184 AD
					Zhōngpíng	中平	184–189 AD
Prince of Hongnong	少帝 or 弘農王	Liu Bian	劉辯	189 AD	Guāngxī	光熹	189 AD
					Zhàoníng	昭寧	189 AD
Emperor Xian of Han	獻帝	Liu Xie	劉協	189–220 AD	Yǒnghàn	永漢	189 AD
					Chūpíng	初平	190–193 AD
					Xīngpíng	興平	194–195 AD
					Jiàn'ān	建安	196–220 AD
					Yánkāng	延康	220 AD

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